By 600 BCE, the Indian subcontinent witnessed the 'Second Urbanization', leading to the rise of 16 Great Kingdoms (Mahajanapadas) stretching from Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the east. This era saw the rise of Buddhism and Jainism.

The 16 Kingdoms

Prominent among them were Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, and Avanti. Magadha eventually emerged as the dominant power.

Governance

Two forms of government existed:

1. Monarchies (Rajyas): Centralized rule (e.g., Magadha).
2. Republics (Ganas/Sanghas): Oligarchic assemblies (e.g., Vajji).

Timeline

• c. 600 BCE: Establishment of the 16 Mahajanapadas.
• c. 563-483 BCE: Life of Gautama Buddha.
• c. 540-468 BCE: Life of Mahavira (Jainism).
• c. 544-492 BCE: Bimbisara rules Magadha (Haryanka Dynasty).
• c. 492-460 BCE: Ajatashatru expands Magadha.
• c. 345 BCE: Rise of the Nanda Empire.